In Defense of the Future

Taylor, M.L. (2005). In defense of the future. [VitalSource version].

The author of this article begins by explaining that new research has determined that this new generation, the Net Generation, is dumb (Taylor, 2005)!  He explains that many other researchers believe the generation is not prepared to really work and their brains have been ruined by “the screen”.  Well, the author visits the conclusions made through research; he calls them the 10 Dark Side issues.  Let’s check them out!

1.      The Dumbest Generation: some may suggest that this generation is dumb due to the amount of time spent on the computer and lack of time spent in the classroom. He reminds us, however, that this generation actually spends less time in front of the TV-zoned out-like their parents.  Many of this generation have the TV on for background noise, but do not pay much attention to the actual program. I am guilty as charged!  In fact, I have the TV on right now, but I couldn’t tell you what is showing or what is even happening.  My brain seems to be handling the multi-noise just fine.  He also discusses the effects of video games on the brain. I am not one to agree with any type of video game usage, but he makes some rather interesting points including the fact that gamers have to practice decision making-usually quickly.  They also have to practice design skills, organizing information, discovery and strategy development-all qualities needed in the classroom and work place. Not to mention many of the games now are played via the web and takes cooperation and communication. These are traits I have not taken into account at all; when I played video games growing up, these were not the aspects of video games. Finally, the author states,

 “That’s why I say this is the story of two generations: the top students are doing fabulously and using the Internet to boost their academic accomplishments, but at the same time, the United States is facing a massive dropout problem, especially among city kids who are black or Hispanic. It’s a scandal. Yet we shouldn’t blame the Internet for this problem. Instead, let’s fix class sizes, alleviate poverty, motivate teachers with better pay, improve childcare, and deal with the factors that directly cause kids to drop out and lose hope. In particular, let’s get laptops and the Web into classrooms so that teachers can be freed to customize a learning experience rather than being forced to remain broadcasters of information. Don’t make the Internet, a global system for communication and the sharing of knowledge, the scapegoat. That is like blaming the library for ignorance” (Generational Issues in Global Education. McGraw-Hill Create p. 121).

I had to post that entire comment from the author because it is SO perfect.  In fact, this is exactly what I think and feel. Let's make this technology work for us!  Let's make the changing global word become a part of our lives and let it enhance learning.  Let's take time to learn what technology can bring to our lessons rather than teaching in the "old ways" that work, but are not in tune with how this generation learns outside the classroom.  Why should they be expected to learn one way because that's how the teacher wants them to learn when they spend time elsewhere manipulating.  Reading online material can often be at a higher level than they would read in the classroom.  In turn, their vocabulary will improve as well as their comprehension and ability to distinguish fact from fiction.

2.      Screen Addicted? Loosing Social Skills?: This generation is not losing their social ability like many of us think they are.  They are the most social generation yet. So social, they want their friends to know when and what they eat, when and where they sleep, and what time they will start their homework.  They are constantly talking and communicating…just not how we communicate and so we think it is strange or uncommunicative. However, they communicate more than we ever did.

3.      Are they Giving up their Privacy?: Yes!  Net Geners love to communicate as stated above and therefore put it all out there. At times they do not consider the consequences of what will happen in 5-10 years after they post an event in life. They do not think that maybe it will come back to them and potentially hurt them in the future. Or do they care?

4.      Are they Coddled?  Do they lack Independence?:  Many worry that Net Geners lack independence because they are 24 and live at home with their parents. Some might even suggest they are spoiled. However, the author suggests that moving home is a positive decision for many because they are so close to their families. Their baby boomer parents couldn’t wait to get out of the house-for their own freedom.  However, this generation has had freedom (due to their ability to search the web) and they feel a sense of home and family. Plus, many of them have huge debt compared to their parents, much of it educational debt.

5.      Does the Internet Encourage Youth to Steal? Are they Cheaters?: These are hard questions to answer because they don’t think they are stealing. Many of this generation don’t understand that when they download a song they are stealing. They just do it because that’s how it’s done. They also spend so much more money on concerts and ring tones, that they think they are “covering it” when the do understand what they are doing. The concept I worry more about is plagiarism.  The reason this is an issue for me is because many students do not understand how to write information in their own words. They think that if they only write one or two sentences from the website, it is okay.  This is a growing problem that teachers need to address while students are young. They cannot just say to students, “Don’t copy off the internet; that is plagiarism.”  They need to TEACH them how to use the information-cite the source-and add their own ideas to make the information theirs. 

6.      Does it Encourage Bullying?: It does not necessarily encourage bullying. Bullies have been around forever!  The fact of the matter is that the internet allows for a bigger audience.  The other side, it’s proof right there on the internet. Again, something this generation might want to reconsider as it could come back to them later. The concept that the bully needs to develop empathy and the victim a sense of self has not changed over time (Taylor, 2005).

7.      Does it Incite Youth Violence?:  Studies imply that YES, this could be a problem.  A longitudinal study shows evidence that youth who played aggressive video games were in fact more aggressive in the future.  This was followed by other studies as well. However, much study still needs to be conducted as these same acts of violence could come from various factors including home life, family, and friends. Parents should be aware and cautious of what their children are up to!

8.      Does the Net Gen have a Misguided Sense of Entitlement and Bad Work Ethic?: Yes and no!  The Net Gen seems to be coming into work ill prepared-in the eyes of some.  They have no desire to sit in a cubicle and work. Their desire is to use all their technology (including FB) to collaborate and get things done on their own time. It does not, however, mean it will take them longer to get work done.  It just means it will take them the time adequately needed. It all depends on how you perceive work ethic.

9.      Are they Narcissistic?: Actions speak louder than words, and the actions show they are not. They drink and smoke less, commit fewer crimes, take less risks, and volunteer more.  I find this interesting.  It seems the world (as bad as it can be) is getting better in some areas. That is refreshing, isn’t it?

10.  What about Their Values? Do they just want to be Rich and Famous?:  They do want to be rich, but many of them have to for the amount of education debt they will build. They like technology and want the newest and greatest. So, yes, money is important to them. I struggle with this aspect because in my life I have been taught “moderation in all things”—“need vs. want”.  It seems that some of this technology is becoming a “need”. I have a computer; it isn’t fancy or wonderful, however it fulfills my needs. I have a phone too. I can make calls and even send text.  However, it is nowhere near what some of my 6^th grade students have. Do I need to change my outlook on what a need is vs. a want so I can relate to my students and peers?

In conclusion, it’s as the saying goes, “We fear what we don’t understand.”  We need to try to understand this generation.  We need to not just understand them, but relate to them and try to be a partnership with them. As we strive for collaboration, they might just surprise us with their motivation and talent.

The Eight Net Gen Norms

Taylor, M.L. (2005). Characteristics of a generation: The eight net gen norms. [VitalSource version].

This chapter gives the reader an idea of what to expect with this new generation.  There are “norms” in each and every generation; this one just happens to be of importance because we are learning to work with this “crew” right now and will be for the years to come. The millennial generation likes to explore the world.  They enjoy talking to others and finding out how they live, why they choose to live that particular way, and what would make them better.  Questioning is a good thing.  We should encourage questioning more; I guess we now need to teach children who to question and the respectful way to question as I have found one struggle with this generation is the respect shown to adults. Students from this generation also have no problem finding information. In fact, one of their greatest qualities is researching a question.  The next step is teaching them that because they found the information, it does not mean they can take credit for the information. We need to teach students how to cite the information and use it productively. 

According to Taylor (2005), the eight net gen norms are: freedom, customization, scrutiny, integrity, collaboration, entertainment, speed, and innovation.

Freedom: This generation has the mentality that if they like what they are doing, they will continue and commit.  The job must also be challenging and engaging or they will just go find something else to do each day. I relate to this idea completely. A friend and I discuss how we are "2 year contractors".  We enjoy our job for 2 years and then it's time to move on.  Not that we want to be disloyal to our employers; we just get bored and want more of a challenge.

Customization: Technology is rapidly evolving and this generation has no problem making it their own. If there is something they want on their iphone, well, they’ll get it right then and there.  According to Taylor, “They modify products to reflect who they are” (2005, p. 96).  Personally, I believe that is part of the problem.  This is exactly why students always want satisfaction NOW-immediate gratification.  There is no patience.

Scrutiny: The new generation has a great ability to distinguish between fact and fiction.  The internet provides so much information that the students of this generation have learned how to determine which sites are factual and useful and which are opinion based. They are skeptical, which might be good for some of them since they are continually purchasing the latest and greatest.

Integrity: Interesting enough, for a generation that wants so much, the research shows they care about being honest and considerate.  Working with students of this generation, I have to agree for the most part. Yes, you always have the select few students who break this trend, but for the most part they do care about the world and want to care for it.

Collaboration: The net generation loves to work with others; they enjoy relationships with others.  They thrive in group projects and find it much more beneficial to their learning. They want to feel their opinion counts and that their creations matter.  Students of this generation enjoy learning this way; they even learn better when they collaborate with teachers. From a personal stand point, I agree with this idea. Working with this generation, I have seen students create great inventions by pulling together.

Entertainment: This generation works for fun!  They will seek entertainment and joy everywhere they go, including the office. The power of technology has increased this entertainment drastically and will continue to increase its vitality.

Speed: Speed does not just mean quick access to the internet (although that is also a necessity).  Speed means instant response and gratification.  The net generation wants answers immediately.  They want answers to work questions as well as social questions.  If the answers are not instant, there becomes panic that one is ignoring another or that they are going to hear something negative. The old saying, “No news is good news” is out the window with this generation.

Innovation: This generation always wants the latest and greatest in regards to inventions. Actually, it is almost impossible to keep up with the inventions.  “Innovation takes place in real time” (Taylor, 2005, p. 113). The change arises in the work force because this group does not follow the traditional chain of command. They collaborate to find something bigger and better than they had before.

These eight generational norms are significant for our understanding because these students are our future. They are going to teach our children.  Actually, I’m excited for the change; as long as they don’t get pushed out of the education field. I find many teachers quit teaching because they find there is too much structure in what “needs” to be accomplished to pass the test rather than what should be accomplished. My hope is for the future.

The Multigenerational Workforce

Erickson, T. J. (2008). Make a multigenerational workforce work for you: Tips for generation Y. Plugged in: The generation Y guide to thriving at work (Ch. 10). Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.

Erickson (2008) suggests the generation y work force needs to put themselves in the shoes of each former generation to truly understand their point of view.  We have all become who we are through our past experience and she claims that if we strive to truly understand and relate to each generation, it will help us better communicate and cooperate in the work field. I like the idea of putting myself in their shoes and experiences because it helps me to know HOW to relate and understand each generation, rather than just try to understand and not know what to do with that understanding.

The author goes on to explain the traditionalist era.  She reminds us that this is the time when WWII was resolved, Russian astronauts went to space, and families started to own homes.  She questions, “How would you feel if you were a teenager at this time?” (Erickson, 2008)” My response: I would assume the world was quickly changing and that good times were ahead.  I am assuming I'd respect and trust family and friends-close though. I would expect to get married out of high school, have children, and stay home full time.  The success would be measured differently because at the time, new advances (like the television) would have been wonderful and I'm sure I would have considered it successful.  Traditionalists are respectful of authority and understand stability.  They see no need for change when things have been okay as they are. I especially enjoyed Table 10.1 (Erickson, 2008, p. 7-8).  This table gave scenarios that might occur in the workforce along with the traditionalist point of view and the generation y point of view.  Interesting enough, I found the points of view to be spot on.  Just by reading them made me understand a little more the loyalty the traditionalist generation feels to their work and their company; they also find great value in monetary means. Generation y has a much broader view of life.  Why?  What have our experiences been that make us more interested in working to live and living to play?  I do not disagree with the outcomes of the scenarios; all of the responses were right up my alley!

Boomers really went through a different time in the world.  There were a great deal of changes in society and government.  They felt as if the world wasn’t so “great” like the traditionalists.  Many, including my parents, could not wait to get out on their own.  Their relationships with their parents and family were not as strong as many hoped. This is interesting because close family relations basically skip a generation.  Why would they raise children to be so close to them if they wanted so desperately to be apart from their parents?  It is similar to the idea of "we will raise our children completely different than our parents or we will raise or children exactly like our parents." Erickson (2008) suggests the big difference between boomers and gen y is that Boomers tend to be highly competitive and driven. I like to think of myself as driven and competitive. However, I don't think I am competitive in the same way as many boomers. Maybe the difference is how the competitiveness drives us?  Erickson (2008) brings up the idea that many boomers tend to persuade their children to be competitive.  They do this by expressing their eagerness for you to succeed by their standards and not your own.  I definitely feel this pressure from my dad. I never really feel like I've done enough to please him regarding my professional success.  When I was teaching, and content with teaching, I felt the pressure to get my graduate degree.  Now that I'm obtaining my graduate degree, I feel pressure to get a job right away or move on to get my Ph.D.  The only reason I feel this is because my dad continually asks me what my future plans are and what I plan to do with my education in a way that sometimes I feel insecure or unsuccessful. I don't believe he can fathom the idea that maybe I just want to stay home with my children and NOT work for a few years.  That option almost seems unacceptable to him.  I can’t help but wonder if it is because his mom stayed home for a good part of his younger years and wasted a good amount of time in the day.

Generation x became a generation of latch-key kids.   Many women went back into the work place and not necessarily due to war, but for their own personal self-worth.  The divorce rate went from 20% to 50% during their teen years. Gen Xer’s are strong with technology, but worry about the next generation who have a greater knowledge of technology and are in competition for jobs that the Boomer’s are exiting for retirement. Erickson says, “The key, as with any relationship, is to recognize that both people bring something to the party” (2008, p. 67). She also reminds us that it helps when both people remember that they can learn from one another. It is hard to think this way when boomers are so competitive.  From my personal experience, they tend to not like change and therefore have no interest in learning from a younger generation.

Erickson, 2008, reminds us that the bottom line is to think of other generation’s formative years and determine why they think the way they do.  This will help you to understand them and make decisions that will best suit the group for success.

When Generations Collide

Fogg, P. (2008). When generations collide. Chronicle of Higher Education, 54, 18-20. Retrieved from: http://chronicle.com. (Generational Issuesin Global Education. McGraw-Hill Create p. 43).

Fogg (2008) begins by explaining the problems Generation X and Y and baby boomers face in the workplace because their upbringing has been completely different and their view for the future is therefore different.  The author mentions that good communication is key to better understand one another.  I agree, but communication has been a problem since the beginning of time.  We strive for good communication, but it is hard as some people do not want to offend or step on toes, and others are at the complete opposite of the spectrum and say whatever they are feeling at any given time.  Basically, we need to find the happy medium and that is what many companies are striving for.  However, it is hard to find a happy medium when people are not willing to change their communication ways.  Pamela Cox-Otto (Fogg, 2008) explains that colleges need to have more emphasis on flexibility, technology, diversity, and work-life balance. I agree with this concept as do many others and this is why online schools and programs are making such progress right now.  People have a desire to be educated, just at their time and pace.

Each generation has “generalizations” that are fairly true due to tried and true evaluations.  Traditionalists generally feel they are hard working with strict moral codes.  Baby boomers feel loyal to their institutions and working overtime is a “given”.  GenXers want more autonomy and care more about a balance between home and work life.   They seek their own interests before work interests (Fogg, 2008). This concept almost seems selfish to me, but maybe since I'm on the edge of this category, I understand why they feel and act this way.  They don't want to live like their parents did paycheck to paycheck-scrimping and saving.  They want to enjoy life, basically a work to live/play mentality. Finally, Generation Y (Millennials) individuals are known to be optimistic, fun seeking, flexible, and even coddled the most growing up (Fogg, 2008). Now this really is my generation;  I have seen many of my former classmates struggle because they were so coddled growing up.  I have also seen some succeed due to their flexibility and optimistic attitude.

Patrick Cataldo (Fogg, 2008) explains the importance of knowing SOME of the generalizations between each generation.  Just by understanding some of these ideas may cut down on workplace confrontations due to misunderstandings between generations.  I completely agree with this idea. In fact, it would be very beneficial for new teachers entering the work-force to take training on the generations. It could take place of one of those nonsense trainings one sits in for 4 hours after working a full day with papers to grade and lessons to plan. This training would actually benefit one and give some insight that would allow for an open mind in many schools.

Many examples are given on how to incorporate each generation with one another.  It might be time for the younger generation to see what real work is and the other generation to see how to take time off (that’s what we’re good at). 

Education of the Future

Taylor, M.L. (2005). The net generation as learners: Rethinking education.[VitalSource version].

The author begins by discussing how Net Geners are growing up in a digital age.  They learn so much by technology; it is suggested that the education system is lagging 100 years in some places.  I can’t help but question, how can we, as educators, ever catch up to them?  By the time we learn what they've learned, there will be something else-something new and innovative to learn. It's almost like we need to just STOP what we are doing and START where they are.  We need to forget what we've done in the past and high-tale it to catch up with these learners. The author goes on to suggest that we should:  focus on the student, not the teacher, interact with students, customize learning to individual development, and encourage collaboration.  I find it interesting that this hasn't always been the standard.  I think it's a mentality. I've ALWAYS focused on what my students need to learn.  Even when I've been told what standards to teach, I've tried to teach them in a way that students will grasp and understand that particular standard.   I agree that educators should focus on collaboration; collaboration is the way of the world now. Everything we do in the work place deals with some sort of collaboration.

In regards to college, the author informs us that nearly half of students who enter college drop-out, or do not complete a degree within 6 years.   One may ask why this is the case, especially when many take out so much money to complete the programs.  Well, I find living in Las Vegas, the answer is money.  Young people get so “caught-up” in needing monetary items; they forgo their education in order to find instant gratification in a car, clothes, jewelry, etc.  Students need to learn at a younger age the value of education and how to be a life-long learner.  This begins in our younger years.  However, teachers struggle to teach these concepts because many are just getting by.  Some suggest educators do not receive the funding they need to teach.  However, I have worked in the education system and I’ve seen money being used in ways that do not help students.  Principals throw money around and it's actually hurting our students and hindering their learning.  The author goes on to suggest that classes are too big and teachers are underpaid.  He even claims that many teachers quit after just five years of teaching.  I have to agree with some of these thoughts as my classes were up to 45 students at times.  Often times there weren't even enough desks. I only taught 5 years and quit...the profession is for me, the politics are not. 

Additionally, high school drop-out rates continue to increase.  Can we solely blame our teachers for this?  Who is letting them drop out? I tend to blame parents more than I blame teachers.  Teachers are trying to "get by" and make-do with what they have.  Many teachers strive for student achievement.  Parents have a responsibility to get their kids to school and continue to teach them at home.  Education does not stop in the classroom.  If you can’t help your child learn at home, you better find someone who can.  I know that is a rough opinion, but it’s my opinion none the less.  7 out of 10 drop-out students complained that they were bored in class and did not feel a desire to work hard (Taylor, 2005).  Yes, this is a teacher’s job.  Teachers need to have higher expectations and not let students get by or pass because they don’t want to deal with them another year.  This is why teachers are taught to differentiate instruction.  The teachers to not do this, yes, are lacking in their obligations.

Taylor (2005) reminds us we are in a new era, an era of life-long learning.  Of course I agree with this idea.  I also agree with the idea that it matters more what you can learn and learning how to find information that actually knowing information.  The author brings some insight to the traditional classroom.  Each student rushes from class to class every 50 minutes.  They spend time memorizing formulas in math, memorizing vocabulary in reading, taking notes in English, etc and every time the bell rings, their learning is interrupted. I hadn't thought of it that way.  As a teacher that taught 50 min. classes, I was always trying to get in as much information as I could in an enlightening way (rather than just taking notes).  Honestly, after getting all the "business" taken care of at the start of class, the learning time was probably only 35-40 min.  What a waste of time!

Cornell University is using a new concept called “Good Questions.”  Through this program, students submit questions to the professor hours before class starts. The professor then has time to adapt the lesson and adjust to student needs.  Higher order questions are then asked during class with peer discussion/instruction to answer questions as well as any new questions that arise.  Of 350 students evaluated, the majority who participated in the program scored higher on math exams (Taylor, 2005).

Overall, there are various ways to run a classroom now and the old way of lecturing is no longer the standard.  Collaboration, technology, and investigation are the new standard.  I am actually really excited to see what education of the future will bring.  As my daughter enters school, she will be taught by some of these NetGeners and I’m excited to see what they bring to the table. 

Generation NeXt

Taylor, M.L. (2005). Meeting generation next: Today’s postmodern college student [VitalSource version].

Learning about generations can ultimately help us understand how to work with others by changing our own actions, views, and ideas.  The author suggests that generalizations are hard to make because not everyone fits in that category, but I have to agree with the author and say that generalizations are just that, general facts about groups because continually prove to be true.  While reading the writing from the author, I found it interesting to be able to relate each generation to my own life. The “Greatest Generation” (1901-1924) includes my great- grandparents who undoubtedly worked extremely hard and lived in a time where resources where hard to come by. The Silent Generation (1925-1944) includes my grandparents who believed in delay of gratifications, sacrifice, and conformity as describes by Taylor (2005).  Next, from 1945-1965 come the Boomers, this includes my parents. Taylor (2005) describes this generation as “the pig in the python”.  The Boomers went through a time where medicine, education, science, and technology increased at a rapid rate.  They were raised at a time when economic and social growth was taking place.  My parents did not grow up with families high in status or economic growth, but their siblings benefited more in that situation.  Boomers make up the majority of collegiate institution workers, which also includes my dad. 1965-1979 created Generation X (which includes my brother) which according to the author, are cynical, arrogant, and materialistic.  My brother is a VERY hard worker and has many good traits, but he does fall into the categories above, which I hate to admit. He does not fit into this category very well because he is very loyal, appreciative and respectful to authority figures, and committed to his work. My parents had a large part in that, as they raised us that way. Further, 1980-1994 created Generation NeXt.  This is the generation I fit into.  The author states that there is not a clear consensus on their character (Taylor, 2005).  I can tell you what the generalizations on this group include: technology based, seek instant gratification, fast paced, non-traditional (especially in regards to education), and at times irresponsible (especially with finances).

Taylor (2005) describes the largest changes to be found in the family.  This I agree with as the acceptance of family has changed drastically. It has gone from a mother who stayed home and father who worked to single parents, homosexual parents, grandparents raising grandchildren, etc. I think the value of the traditional family is almost lost, but the value of family in general is still there for many.  Many children in the recent generations grew up much differently than their parents and grandparents. We were these children, but things have changed in 15 yrs.  My brother and I played outside after our homework was completed.  TV was okay to watch, but we didn't do that until it got dark and usually we were on the soccer field. There were no reality TV shows and the worst show on TV was “Married with Children” (which we were not allowed to watch).  Yes, the times have changed and I am surprised that parents allow their children to watch what they do.  Especially in LV, where parents work ALL hours, the supervision lacks tremendously.

The author concludes with 12 suggestions on how to work with the generations rather than against them.  We can not change their ways.  It’s more important that we accept their ways because once one has grown up a certain way and has ideas engrained in their brain; it’s hard to get that out. People don’t change that easily and so it’s important to work with each other and accept each way of life and thinking. 

Confusion of my Own!

I've been learning about adult learners and education for some time now and I'm struggling to see the difference between adults and children. I know it seems silly and I know there are studies that show how adults learn, but the differences are not that different (in my opinion).  Some of the thoughts are that adults need to know what they are learning and why they are learning that concept.  Well, 6th graders asked me all the time, "Why do I need to know that?"  Another idea is that adults are more self-directed.  I agree, but I also agree that children are self-directed too.  If there is a topic they are interested in...they will learn and they will enjoy learning. The motivation to learn for adults is stronger (apparently).  I disagree.  You give a 6th grader a white board and marker and let me tell you their motivation to learn just increased ten-fold.  Can you image what would happen if you gave them an ipad?  Adults have more of a readiness to learn.  Children are ready to learn too.  They have life experiences that could sometimes exceed our own.  I don't think we should look past these young minds for one second.  They are sponges ready to absorb anything that comes their way with the right facilitation.

Web Page Creation

Working in Global Education is very interesting!  I created this webpage about adult learning styles.  Check it out here.  I've started to learn about how to use the internet and technology to teach and learn. It's amazing what is out there!

Reflection #8 (Thoughts)

It's been a few months since I have written, but not since I've reflected!  Reflection is a constant part of my  life.  I reflect on my studies, my family, my parenting struggles, and friends. I wish I could be better at so many things and in so many areas of my life.  Sometimes I think about how much I lack, but I'm grateful that I do have talents to share.  I'm glad that I have a talent to teach; that is one area of my life I have no reservations. I learned a great deal in school, but most of what I know, is just part of who I am.  I hate the quote, "Those who can't...teach." That is SO wrong...teaching takes skill, patience, and understanding of multiple levels of intelligence. Plus, what better way to learn something, than to teach the concept?  Just a little reflection on teaching as many get ready for back to school!

Reflection #7

After reviewing the reading material from today, please 1) highlight the purpose and components of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act and 2) briefly research and discuss technical education programs that your local school district provides for students.

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act was reauthorized into law on August 12, 2006. The purpose of the law is for individuals to be provided with academic and technical skills to succeed in our ever changing economy. Students receive the support they need through secondary and post-secondary education.  According the Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE) (2011), federal funds are used to ensure that these technical programs are up to date and academically challenging with business and the industry today. State and local funds generally provide for program improvement through change, integration of academic and technical education, equipment for classrooms with the latest technology, guidance and counseling, staff development, and student organizations. The law allows for more state and local accountability as well as accountability for the students through specific standards. States are working to provide specific standards and curriculum to allow for student progress and success.

The Clark County School District provides technical high schools with trait specific programs. Each school has a different program and students from all over the valley can choose to attend these schools. Students must, however, apply for each school.  A list of the schools includes:

Clark County School District, Las Vegas, NV: Technical Programs Search (2011)

HIGH SCHOOLS GRADES 9-12

·         Advanced Technologies Academy

·         Canyon Springs High School and the Leadership and Law Preparatory Academy

·         Clark High School

·         Desert Pines High School

·         East Career and Technical Academy

·         Las Vegas Academy of International Studies, Performing and Visual Arts

·         Northwest Career and Technical Academy

·         Rancho High School

·         Southeast Career and Technical Academy

·         Southwest Career and Technical Academy

·         Valley High School

·         Veteran's Tribute Career and Technical Academy

·         West Career & Technical Academy

After graduating from these schools, many students have earned college credits and/or have been trained in a trait that they can move forward in a profession right out of high school.  This training will also help many of them as they progress into college with a knowledge base of what they would like to do in the years to come.

References

Association for Career and Technology Education. (2011). Carl D. Perkins Act Implementation.   Retrieved from: http://www.acteonline.org/perkins.aspx#background

Clark County School District. (2011). School Types. Retrieved from: http://ccsd.net/areas/superintendents-schools/schoolTypes.php#select

Reflection # 6

How will you supervise and administer school counseling programs? Ground your thoughts in the course readings.

In order to supervise a counseling program, it is important to understand the role of a counselor. According to the American School Counselor Association (2009), a counselor is trained in school counseling (holding at least a master’s degree) to address the developmental needs of students.  Academic, career, and personal/social issues may all be met through a school counselor. As an administrator, it is essential to hire those individuals who are highly qualified in the area of counseling and hold the most up to date and current qualifications.

The next step to supervising a school counseling program includes setting the model as a guide for the school. According to A Model Comprehensive, Development Guidance & Counseling Program for Texas Public Schools (2004), each school needs something individually different.  Some schools need a new program, updating an existing program, or revamping a program with new resources.  In order to accomplish the goal necessary for one’s school, the Program Development Cycle could be used as a means for establishing the appropriate program. The cycle is five steps that can be accomplished in any order. The steps include: organizing-taking action and identifying leadership for the program, planning-assess the current program, designing-establish the program design, implementing-use counselor resources to make improvements, and evaluating-reevaluate to address further issues that arise. Through this program, one may move forward at the pace that works for the school, students, and parents while working through issues that need to be specifically met.

Once the position is filled and a model is developed, it is important the students feel comfortable meeting with their guidance counselor. As an administrator, it is important to allow the counselor the time necessary to meet with students daily. The suggested ratio of counselor to student is 1:250 (American School Counselor Association, 2009).  However, this is rarely the case.  Many schools have even double the number of students to one counselor. If student have time to meet with their counselor, students will not feel as if they are just a number, but a person with a future in mind. According to Johnson, Rochkind, & Ott (2010, p. 75), “In the Public Agenda study, nearly one-half of young people (48 percent) say they usually felt like “just another face in the crowd” in dealing with their high school guidance counselor.” With time, they will receive the actual guidance they deserve rather than the guidance they get in a five minute session with a counselor that has a desk full of paper work to complete. This means that lunch duty and test-booklet preparations may need to be completed by another staff member in order to allow the counselor time necessary to meet with students.

Continued education and training is also important in our ever-changing world.  As an administrator, one should provide training opportunities for staff, counselors included. The authors (Johnson, Rochkind, & Ott, 2009) explain that counselors are not necessarily trained on how to aid students and parents in financial aid, college selections, apprenticeships, or other post-secondary options. Counselors also need continued training to develop and polish skills in working with students academically and socially. As the years progress, student problems change and counselors need to adapt to the change and learn how to address the new issues.

References

American School Counselor Association. 2009. The role of the professional school counselor. Retrieved from: www.schoolcounselor.org

Johnson, J., Rochkind, J., & Ott, A. 2010. Why guidance counseling needs to change. Educational Leadership, p. 74-79. Retrieved from: www.ascd.org

Texas Education Agency. 2004. A model comprehensive, development guidance & counseling program for Texas public schools (Rev. ed). Austin, TX.

Reflection #5

Interesting enough, when I realized this article was about accelerating students my first instinct was to say, “No way”.  The reason for this being I just assumed acceleration of students solely meant skipping grade levels. After reading through the material and evidence, my thought process and opinion has changed to, “It’s an option, for SOME students.”  Therefore, I do agree in acceleration of students, to a degree.  Acceleration, as defined by the authors Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross (2004, p5.), states,

“Acceleration is an educational intervention that moves students through an educational program at a faster than usual rate or younger than typical age. Acceleration includes single-subject acceleration, whole-grade-skipping, early-entrance to school, and Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Acceleration means matching the level, complexity, and pace of the curriculum with the readiness and motivation of the student.”

As the authors gave examples of America’s leaders who skipped grades, it was apparent to me that this is not a “no way” kind of decision.  The decision needs to be made on a case-by-case basis.  It is amazing to me that people like Martin Luther King Jr., T.S. Eliot, James Watson, and Sandra Day O’Connor all graduated early or skipped grades (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004). These people made such a huge difference in our society; I can’t help but wonder if things would have been the same had they not been given the chance to accelerate? I also appreciated the comments from the student, Alexis Hanson, who accelerated from 6^th to 7^th grade.  She brings up great points regarding how students who accelerate deal with different issues.  One struggle she points out is the difficulty she felt moving into college. She says she had a hard time with study skills because she hadn’t ever needed them (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004).  I find that interesting because EVERY student has trouble with study skills.  If that is the only concern she really had moving into college, I think she is right on track. Serving students with special gifts and talents is not a new concept, it is a concept that has been ignored and needs to be addressed in a new light.

The myths and truths that caught my attention also came in two-fold: agree and partially agree.  Again, this is why I now believe in acceleration, for SOME students. The myths and truths to come are from authors Congelo, Assouline, & Gross (2004).  Starting with Myth #4: “Age trumps everything else,” (p.6) explains that for many educators, age has become the determination for grade placement. I agree that this idea does play a huge role in the placement, but I do not agree that it actually should play a role.  I agree with the authors in the idea that students should be placed on readiness, not age. Myth #5: “Safer is better than sorry,” (p.6) supports the idea that teachers would rather keep a student in the age appropriate grade than regret the decision later.  Again, I agree that this does play a part in placement, but do not necessarily think it should.  The regret is very little compared to the satisfaction of acceleration for most students. Myth #8: “New friends are hard to make,” (p.7) is a reason I agree with because I have actually seen this take place.  The few students I have seen that skipped a grade struggled with emotional and physical readiness and therefore struggled to make friends. Myth #6 I partially agree with; it states, “Acceleration is not taught in colleges of education (p.7).”  Apparently it can be proven that acceleration is not taught in many colleges, but my college of education did cover GATE students and acceleration.  We did not have one specific class on the topic, but it was addressed multiple times. As I read through the truths and myths posed by the authors (p. 6-7), I did feel they were on the right track with their ideas.  Even if I did not totally agree with the idea, I agree that they are truths and myths.

According to the research I’ve completed regarding CCSD (CCSD Support Services Division) curriculum and standards in teaching gifted and talented students, it seems the idea of acceleration in neutral. It is very rare for a student to skip a grade. So, in that sense it is not highly complemented.  However, the district does provide gifted and talented education (GATE) to gifted students in grades 3-5.  Also, at the middle and high school levels there are accelerated classes in reading, math, English, and science. As well as advanced placement (AP) classes in high school.  Through these programs, it seems acceleration is supported in CCSD.

Reference

CCSD Student Support Services Division: http://sssd.ccsd.net/gate.html

Colangelo, N., Assouline, S.G., & Gross, M.U.M. (2004). A nation deceived: how schools hold back America’s brightest students. The Connie Belin & Jacqueline N. Blank International Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development, 1, 1-82. Retrieved from: http://nationdeceived.org

Reflection #4

How will you, as a school leader, ensure that the needs of students who are English language learners are met?

How will you supervise programs for ELL students?

First off, as stated in the power point by Ms. Jenkins, as a school leader one must start by identifying and addressing the needs of the students.  If a school has a high population of limited English proficient (LEP) students who require special language services, it would then be the responsibility of the administrator to provide the necessary resources for academic success. 

A starting point to address the needs, once assessed, is to create a team that is equipped to train and support teachers who need assistance with ELL students. This team could be similar to the RTI team, and maybe even work with the RTI team, but specialize in ELL strategies.  (This team may already be a standard in some states or schools, but I have not worked in a school with this in the works.) This team could present strategies at staff development days, hold after/before school open-door strategy sessions, parent involvement meetings, tutoring opportunities, etc.

The next step would be to determine which type of language program or programs work for the LEP students, teachers, and staff.  Honigsfeld (2009) gives examples of program models that might be seen in a public school system.   The English-language monolingual program is where a LEP student is placed in a class and receives no special instruction with language skills. The English-language-monolingual-plus ESL program holds students in a general education classroom but also provides instruction in English as a second language (ESL). The transitional bilingual educational program starts with the child in a bilingual classroom.  The student is taught in their native language and is also given ESL services.  However, the instruction is eventually provided only in English and the student is moved as quickly as possible to a monolingual English classroom. A maintenance bilingual education program is very similar to the above transitional program.  The only difference is that this program’s goal is to develop full proficiency in both languages. Finally, a structured immersion program is when the student is placed in a general education classroom where instruction is provided only in English; however LEP students are allowed to address the teacher in their native language when they do not understand.  The teacher must be fluent in the native language of the students, but does not use the language often unless necessary while teaching a certain subject. After determining which program or programs would be the most beneficial in our school, I would then provide the appropriate trainings and hiring that teachers would need in order to successfully implement the program in their classroom with the least amount of change to their procedures.

Supervising the program would then take constant communication with the teachers, staff, students, and even parents.  Communication regarding what works and what does not work will help all parties involved be more successful.  Also, communication through trainings is important. As the teachers are trained in strategies to teach students, it would be imperative for administration to be present to learn as well.  Administrators need to be actively engaged in learning and teaching.  When the staff sees the administration present, they sense the importance of the training and will be more inclined to participate and implement the instructional strategies in their own classrooms. Finally, assessing teacher instruction is the responsibility of the administration. If teachers are trained to work with LEP students, they should be implementing the strategies that will provide for positive academic achievement. Through this, hopefully the students will benefit and the school will move forward in a positive manner.

References

Honigsfeld, A. (2009). ELL programs: not one size fits all. ProQuest Education Journals, 45(4), 166-171.

Reflection #3

Highlight the major components of Title I and how policies have evolved through NCLB 2001 and ARRA 2009. Discuss measures that you believe can be taken as a school administrator to enhance academic outcomes for at-risk youth through Title I funding.

According to the U.S. Department of Education (2004) Title I is titled, “Improving the Academic Achievement of the Disadvantaged”.  Basically this law is to ensure that all students have a fair and equal opportunity to obtain a high quality education.  Students are also required to be proficient on State academic standards through State assessments.  The major components of Title I include: teacher qualifications, student achievement, parent communication, financial funding, and school accountability (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). In order for all of these components to be successful, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and ARRA were created to successfully meet the standards of Title I.

As part of Lyndon B. Johnson’s war on Poverty, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was established in 1965. The act was then reauthorized in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act. NCLB contains four basic parts: accountability for student performance, focusing on what works for students, increased flexibility with reduced bureaucracy, and empowerment of parents. In order for states to assess student achievement, highly qualified (HQ) teachers must be hired in their subject or content area. Becoming highly qualified requires a bachelor’s degree, state certification (usually an assessment), and competency demonstrated in the classroom.  To focus on what works for students, teachers are trained to use teaching strategies that are research based, which allows students to learn and obtain knowledge in the most up to date and appropriate manner.  Student performance and accountability should then be met in reading, math, and science through State assessed standards. Through these assessments, schools must meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).  If the progress is not met for two consecutive years, schools must then go through a school improvement process which includes five levels of improvements. As schools meet AYP, flexibility in programs and funds then becomes possible. The state and local programs work together to decide what funds will be transferred and where. Finally, parents are informed regarding assistance materials and training, school changes and assessments, and student achievement-all in the language the parent can understand (Texas Education Agency, 2011).

ARRA, or the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, has a goal to establish long term economic health of the Nation by investing in education and public services now. The success will depend on the communities as a whole to apply funds appropriately to strengthen education and teach low-achieving students.  In order to successfully achieve these goals, ARRA funds must be used in the following manner: 1) Spend funds quickly to save and create jobs.  Teachers can be hired specifically to teach in Title I schools or they can be kept on the current payroll if necessary. 2) Improve student achievement through school improvement and reform. Programs and activities can be purchased that will promote student achievement. Also, the funds may be used for staff development to teach teachers successful strategies to teach students who need the extra assistance. 3) Report fiscal and programmatic information in order to ensure transparency and accountability.  This means that schools and districts must report how the funds and tax dollars are being used. This way, the public and parents will be aware of the development in education and understand how the money is spent.  4) Invest the one-time ARRA funds thoughtfully to minimize the “funding cliff”. The local education agency (LEA) and participating schools need to be prepared for reoccurring costs when the ARRA money ends.  So, the programs they purchase should be one-time payments to avoid considerable debt. Basically, the LEA should determine how these funds and other funds can be combined to successfully help students who are failing or with learning disabilities succeed in academics and to achieve standards. (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).  

As an administrator, it is important to be aware of all the components of Title I, including NCLB and ARRA.  Not only is it important for the administrator to understand, but the staff should be well versed in the information also.  Again, communication is essential as an administrator and it is important for one to share with the staff exactly where the school stands regarding AYP.  This will allow for academic success with students as teachers have a desire to meet AYP. Funding can be a very controversial aspect of administration in a school. Teachers, staff, parents, and community partners all have a different idea of how funds should be spent.  As an administrator, it is important to get input from these groups, but make the best decision possible based on the needs of the students and school. It is also important to be aware that only 15% of the ARRA funds can be carried over to the next fiscal year. That being said, LEA and administration need to determine if they will need more time to spend the funds appropriately. If that is the case, they need to immediately apply for a waiver to carry over more of the funds as necessary. As an administrator, it is imperative to use the funding in a manner that will drive results for students, increase education capacity for long term results, improve productivity, and foster continuous improvement (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). Keeping those goals in mind, an administrator should purchase the teacher friendly resources and programs that will give them motivation to teach students in need. While meeting these small goals, the student achievement gap will decrease and success will prevail in school districts, the ultimate goal.

Resources

Texas Education Agency Division of NCLB Program Coordination. (2011). General NCLB information-NCLB overview presentation. Retrieved from: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/index4.aspx?id=4261&menu_id=798

U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Elementary & Secondary Education: Title I — Improving the academic achievement of the disadvantaged. Retrieved from: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg1.html

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Secondary and Elementary Education. (2009). Using Title I, part A ARRA funds to grants for local education agencies to strengthen education, drive reform, and improve results for students. Retrieved from:  http://vizedhtmlcontent.next.ecollege.com/CurrentCourse/ARRA.pdf

Reflection #2

As an administrator, what steps will you take to ensure that students with disabilities receive appropriate educational placement when behavioral issues arise?

The atmosphere of a school starts from the top; the administration sets the tone for teachers, support staff, parents, and students.  As an administrator, it is essential that high expectations are set from the start of the school year.  This includes: high expectations of teacher and staff instruction, parent involvement, and student participation and achievement. The first step I would take as an administrator is to set the tone in a positive manner by communicating this expectation through example.  Creating positive and informative staff development days, keeping up with evaluations in a timely and orderly manner, and being visual in teacher classrooms is a great way to exemplify to teachers high expectations. Teachers will then pass the “message” along to students and parents in setting high expectations in their classroom through developmentally appropriate instruction and assessments.  Through this instruction, the hope is for students to be academically challenged at their level rather than being bored and/or frustrated. Hughes and Adera (2006) find, “Research has consistently demonstrated that one of the most effective deterrents against inappropriate student behavior is active, engaging, and relevant academic instruction” (p. 27). Students who consistently experience academic failure tend to use behavior as a way to escape from a situation; the behavior is not usually positive (Gable, Bullock, & Evans, 2006).

That being said, the second step as an administrator relates directly to the first step: to prevent behavior issues as much as possible. As students are actively engaged in a good cause, their time to misbehave diminishes. Administrators are responsible for setting the master calendar of class sections.  It is important to take into consideration the types of classes students will need in order to be successful and where they should be placed each year.  It is also the responsibility of the administrator to suggest strategies to teachers who may struggle with behavior management.  Some academic strategies teachers could implement in their classroom include but are not limited to: engaging activities rather than worksheets, instruction in organization and study skills, instruction using higher order thinking skills, instruction relevant to student interests and the world they live in, ongoing assessment of progress (progress monitoring), and practice of social skills and problem solving techniques (Hughes & Adera, 2006).

As an administrator, knowing the regulations and laws is essential (as in every aspect of special education). Congress just amended a section to IDEA in 1997 that specifically addressed discipline issues (Bateman, 2007). These amendments are detailed, but require students with disabilities receive a free and appropriate education while establishing a safe environment for all students.  Part of knowing the laws also requires documentation of behavioral issues and discipline procedures.  This includes past history documented by parents, staff, teachers, and administrators. Students with disabilities are required to follow the school’s discipline procedures.  However, out of school suspension may not exceed ten days. If the student brings illegal substances to school, weapons, or inflicts bodily harm on another, they may be removed for no more than 45 school days.  The key component is to know the appropriate placement for students when moved to an alternate setting and to continue services if required by law. The previous steps and documentation should allow for administration to collaborate with teachers, staff, and parents to find the appropriate setting for the student’s least restrictive learning environment even when behavioral issues arise.

Resources

Bateman, D.F. (2007). The special education program administrator’s handbook.  Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Gable, R.A., Bullock, L.M., & Evans, W.H. (2006). Changing perspectives on alternative schooling for children and adolescents with challenging behavior. ProQuestion Education Journals, 51 (1), 5-9.

Hughes, A.F., & Adera, B. (2006). Education and day treatment opportunities in schools: strategies that work.  ProQuest Education Journals, 51 (1), 26-30.

Reflection #1

1. Highlight the general components of P.L. 94-142, and how IDEA benefits students who receive special education services.

2. Walk me through the eligibility procedures in deciding whether a student would benefit from receiving special education services.

3. Discuss measures that should be taken by educators to effectively accommodate students who receive special education services.

4. Highlight the differences between mediation and due process, and measures that you as an administrator can take to resolve conflicts between your school staff and parents.

Enacted in 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Pl 94-142) was created for all children with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education. After reviews of the law every five years, small changes were made and currently the law is titled the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act or IDEA 2004. A nondiscriminatory assessment was also part of this act which required parental permission.  This assessment would allow for an individualized education program (IEP) for the student to gain and maintain the most valuable education possible (Bateman, 2007). “Section 504 of the law defines an individual with a disability as one who has a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more major life activities, has a record of such an impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment” (Bates, 2007, p 22). There were essentially four purposes to the law.  Along with providing services to meet the specific needs of the student with disabilities, the rights of these students and their parents would be protected, states would be given assistance to provide for student needs, and the effectiveness of the education would be assessed (Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, 2007).

Eligibility for special education services requires a referral process starting with screening activities. The earlier a child is identified the better it is for their development.  If special education services are questioned, the teacher or caretaker first seeks parental permission to assess the child. The next step, according to Bateman (2007), is to seek information relevant to the student’s development.  Questionnaires are completed regarding demographics and relevant family information, health and sensory information, cumulative school files, and current classroom progress.

After this information is reviewed, a group of individuals determine a plan to provide the student with learning opportunities in his or her least restrictive learning environment (LRE) (Bateman, 2007). This team uses scientific, research based interventions to determine if the student responds positively. The interventions are based on a tiered approach where students are first given extra support in the general education classroom. If the student does not respond to the first tier, the next approach is to give more intense instruction (including small groups).  Schools may have different strategies implemented at this tier.  Finally, if the student still does not progress, the student is given special education with an individualized education plan (IEP) (Fuchs & Mellard, 2007).  A 504 plan may also be implemented if the student falls under Section 504 of the law. The RTI team continually meets during this process to determine the progress of the child. Bateman (2007) states, “The purposes of the consultation meetings are twofold: (1) to generate general education class supports (i.e., prereferral strategies) to help the student remain in general education and (2) to determine observation schedules needed to verify the student’s progress toward the general education class prereferral strategies” (p. 69-70). That being said, it is important to note that, “IDEA 2004 established a sixty-day timeline from receipt of parental consent for evaluation for eligibility to the determination of eligibility and the educational needs of the child, unless the state has already established a timeline for these activities.  If the state has a deadline for completing the initial evaluation, the state deadline applies” (Bateman, 2007, p. 76).

Students who receive special education services will have an IEP.  This plan allows for the best education possible for the student.  One of the most important things a teacher can do is follow the plan in the IEP as outlined, not only for legal purposes, but to maintain consistency for the student achievement. If an educator is unsure of how to go about teaching the student according to their IEP, they should seek assistance from colleagues and administrators. Educators should hold a high standard to reach all children and following the accommodations will allow for their success as well. Another tip for educators to effectively teach students with an IEP is to communicate daily with parents. This will provide a positive environment for the student and allow the parents to feel comfortable with the teacher.

When problems arise where the IEP is not met or the parents are not satisfied with how the process is progressing, someone outside the system is called in to help resolve the dispute-mediation. Bateman (2007) states, “Mediation is especially productive when the main barrier is communication” (p. 41). There are three requirements for the mediation process including: voluntary involvement, it is not used to deny or delay a parent’s right to due process, and it is conducted by a qualified and impartial mediator who is trained in effective mediation techniques. At times, the dispute is resolved within 45 days and parents and teachers quickly get back to work educating the child (Bateman, 2007).  However, this is not always the case; conflicts often arise and mediation can take much longer than the given time frame.

Due process is one step further than mediation. According to Bateman (2007), this hearing is conducted by the State educational agency or the local educational agency to resolve the complaint from the parent or guardian. The first step of due process is a preliminary meeting. Within 15 days of receiving the complaint, the local educational agency will send a representative with decision making authority to meet with the parent and IEP team, possibly a lawyer, and/or teacher. At this point the opportunity to resolve the problem is a top priority.  If the conflict is not resolved within 30 days, a due process hearing may take place. When a resolution is reached, a written contract is created and either party has 3 business days to void the agreement.

Clearly, the goal of educators is to meet the needs of all students.  The goal should be to avoid mediation and due process if possible. As an administrator, steps should be taken to prevent these types of situations when working with staff and parents. Communication is a very effective mode for positive relationships.  As parents and teachers feel a sense of community with the school, the desire to comprise will improve. Bates (2007) describes strategies for avoiding due process hearings. It is imperative that the administration is knowledgeable about the purpose and requirements of disabilities laws, and that they believe in the principles of the laws. Teachers and administrators should also know how to serve children with disabilities.  Adopting a team approach adds to the communication and community feel of the school, and as stated before, communication is essential. Professional development meetings and activities for staff and even parents are also a positive way to increase awareness and promote positive teaching styles and relationships. While each of these steps takes time and practice, the outcome proves to be positive and all parties will find success in teaching children.

References

Bateman, D.F. (2007). The special education program administrator’s handbook.  Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Fuchs, L.S., & Mellard, D.F. (2007). Helping educators discuss responsiveness to intervention with parents and students.[Brochure]. Lawrence, KS: National Research Center on Learning Disabilities.

Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. (2007, July 19). History twenty-five years of progress in educating children with disabilities through IDEA. Office of Special Education Programs. United States Department of Education, Washington, DC. Retrieved from: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/leg/idea/history.html